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- Contemporary Media
- Media Effects, Impacts, and Uses
- Media Effects
- exposure to media creates changes in…
- cognitions
- emotions
- behavior
- Media Impacts
- examine the complex relationship between
- Variables
- independent variable
- causes of media effects
- exposure to media is seen as a trigger
- dependent variable
- consequences or effects of media exposure
- impacts on cognitions, emotions, behaviors
- Inductive Research
- administrative research
- takes existing media institutions for granted
- focuses on documenting media use and effects
- critical research
- criticizes media institutions
- examine how media serve dominant social groups
- Content Analysis
- characterizes the content of the media
- takes systematic samples
- classifies words, images, themes
- quantitative: counts the incidences
- qualitative: examines the meaning
- creates detailed profiles of media content
- identifies trends over time
- Experimental Research
- studies the effects of media in carefully controlled situations
- manipulates media content and exposure
- subjects are randomly divided, seeking…
- generalizability: the degree to which research procedures and samples may be generalized
- validity: the degree to which we are actually measuring what we intend to measure
- reliability: the extent to which a result is stable and consistent
- e.g., Bandura’s Bobo Doll (1965)
- Survey Research
- polling to determine correlation
- statistical measure of an association between two variables
- more generalizable than experimental studies
- represents larger populations
- accounts for wider range of factors
- longitudinal studies are repeated over time
- Ethnographic Research
- naturalistic research method in which the observer obtains detailed information from personal observation or interviews over extended periods of time
- used by anthropologists to look at cultures in holistic ways
- focus groups capture people in “in their own worlds” through guided group interaction
- can yield in-depth information about a particular place and time
- does not permit much generalization
- Big Data: predictive analysis on recorded behavior
- Uses and Gratifications
- theory that media are actively selected to satisfy our needs
- knowledge
- social interaction
- diversion
- dominates thinking about media consumption
- needs change over time
- Social Learning Theory
- explains media consumption in terms of its expected outcomes
- explains particular avoidance of media
- self-efficacy: the perception of our own competence to consume the media
- Media Addiction
- interactive media respond to our every move
- ecstatic state of flow where time seems to disappear
- effects
- health problems
- highs and lows
- interfering with work and school
- Computer Mediated Communication
- interpersonal, organizational communication research originated on computer networks
- videoconferencing
- electronic mail
- describe presence
- psychological state in which virtual objects are experienced as real objects
- low presence
- email consisting of only printed words
- high presence
- two-way videoconferences with live interactions
- Hypodermic Needle
- posits powerful, direct effects of the mass media
- like the impact of a speeding bullet on everyone
- studies persuasion
- one-sided vs. two-sided arguments
- fear-based vs. rational arguments
- example
- “War”
- audience does exactly what media say
- “We want war”
- Multistep Flow
- assumes media effects are indirect and mediated by opinion leaders
- most people receive much of their information and are influenced by the media secondhand
- example
- “This means war”
- audience follows opinion leaders who interpret media
- “People are saying this means war”
- Selective Process
- selective exposure: audiences avoid messages that are at odds with their existing beliefs
- selective perception: audiences distort discordant content
- selective retention: audiences misremember discordant content
- demonstrates the theory of limited effects
- effects of mass media on individuals are slight
- example
- “it’s the moral equivalent of war"
- audience interprets in their own way
- “War? What war?”
- Social Learning
- cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction
- television and observational learning
- rewards depicted encourage imitative behavior
- punishments depicted discourage imitative behavior
- the more we identify with a character, the more we are likely to imitate his/her behavior
- example
- “Let’s go get ’em"
- audience imitate behavior shown in media
- “Let’s play war”
- Cultivation
- mass media exposure cultivates a view of the world that is consistent with mediated “reality”
- mainstreaming: real-world experiences combine with mediated worldview
- resonance: real-world experience confirms mediated view
- example
- “It’s war on the streets"
- audience thinks real worlds works like TV world
- “it’s a scary world out there”
- Priming
- media images stimulate related thoughts in the minds of audience members
- activation of one thought triggers related thoughts
- example
- “Blam!”
- media triggers related thoughts in audience
- “Happiness is a warm gun”
- Agenda Setting
- process through which public figures and important events shape the content of the media
- does not tells what to think, but…
- tells us what to think about
- Catharsis
- media sex and violence allow people to live out antisocial desires in a mediated fantasy world
- effects of violence video games
- long-period players exhibited less aggression
- Critical Theories
- focus less on behavior effects of individuals
- address how communities and individuals interpret media and large-scale cultural impacts
- political economy and ideology: powerful media owners assert ideological interests
- cultural studies: audiences are readers of media texts
- Antisocial Behavior
- contrary to prevailing norms for social conduct
- murder
- hate crimes
- rape
- drug abuse
- drunkenness
- aggression
- sexual promiscuity
- Violence
- children cannot easily distinguish between the real world and the mediated world
- effect of television violence on children
- carry out parallel aggressions
- perform new, novel forms of violent behavior
- more important social factors, not related to media
- family and peer influences
- socioeconomic status
- history of substance abuse
- concerned parents should anticipate violent content with content “warning labels”
- Prejudice
- stereotyping
- formation of generalizations about a group of people based on limited information
- harmful when they become rationalizations for treating others unfairly
- examples
- media are effective in creating stereotypes
- concern over negative stereotypes spilling over into daily lives
- Sexual Behavior
- first triggered with Hollywood star scandals of the 1920s
- recent increases in highly explicit pornographic material
- is there a relationship between pornography and sex crimes in the real world?
- Drug Abuse
- illegal drugs not commonly depicted on media
- legal drug advertising
- cigarette companies
- hard-liquor distilleries
- beer and wine
- over-the-counter drugs
- prescription drugs
- Prosocial Behavior
- behaviors that a society values or encourages
- cooperation
- altruism
- sharing
- love
- tolerance
- respect
- balanced nutrition
- contraceptive use
- personal hygiene
- safe driving
- improved readings skills
- discontinuing antisocial behaviors
- smoking
- drinking
- reckless driving
- unsafe sex
- Information Campaigns
- uses techniques of public relations and advertising in an attempt to convince people to adopt prosocial behaviors
- information campaigns have a spotty record of success
- social marketing techniques
- integrated marketing communication approach
- media campaigns
- interpersonal influence
- introduce recommended products into the lives of the target audience
- Informal Education
- impact without a captive audience of classroom students
- combine education and entertainment
- unintended effects
- e.g., Sesame Street couldn’t close the “knowledge gap”
- incidental learning
- learning that comes as a side effect of exposure to entertainment
- “entertainment-education”
- Formal Education
- distance education
- delivery of courses through media
- World Wide Web
- effectiveness of online courses
- Massive Open Online Courses
- Impacts of Advertising
- advertisers are happy to achieve a limited impact
- strengthen brand awareness
- maintain brand loyalty
- hierarchy of effect
- purchase decisions follow a series of steps
- awareness
- interest
- decision
- buying action
- Children and Advertising
- young children have a difficult time understanding commercials
- confuse commercials with the programs
- react uncritically to advertising messages
- some television shows are program-length advertisements
- e.g., characters of a children’s program are toys for sale
- Political Communication
- unclear how to sway massive bloc of votes through persuasive argumentation
- researchers study complex interactions between voters, media, and political systems
- issues have turned into TV “sound bites”
- public opinion: commonly held beliefs, attitudes, and misconceptions about the issues of the day
- spiral of silence: aids the dominant public opinion despite disagreements
- social media can play an important role in sparking social movements outside the purview of the political establishment and mainstream media
- Social Inequality
- wealth
- race
- gender
- digital divide
- haves
- information rich
- superior levels of education
- access to libraries and personal computers
- have-nots
- information poor
- inferior levels of education
- poor access to information resources
- knowledge gap hypothesis
- haves will never catch up to the have-nots
- Health and Environment
- concerns of excessive media use…
- physical inactivity may lead to obesity
- may cause attention disorders
- exposure to very-low frequency radiation
- cell phones implicated in brain cancer
- repetitive stress injuries
- Media and Economy
- information technology improves efficiency by eliminating employees
- fewer employees leading to job displacement
- global telecommunications networks enables offshoring
- insourcing designers, requiring fewer workers
- information technologies could lead to deskilling
- new information technologies could force upskilling that existing workers might not have
- telecommuting could decentralize the workforce
- Fordism and Post-Fordism
- Fordism
- each employee performs a single task over and over again
- workers don’t know how to make anything
- only the managers know how to organize those tasks
- workers paid enough to purchase the products they assembled
- Post-Fordism
- deskilled workers
- workers paid less and replaced at-will
- cuts pay to where workers cannot participate in the consumer economy