Juan Monroy — Media Effects, Impacts, and Uses

Media Effects
- exposure to media creates changes in…
  - cognitions
  - emotions
  - behavior
Media Impacts
- examine the complex relationship between
  - media
  - society
Variables
- independent variable
  - causes of media effects
  - exposure to media is seen as a trigger
- dependent variable
  - consequences or effects of media exposure
  - impacts on cognitions, emotions, behaviors
Inductive Research
- administrative research
  - takes existing media institutions for granted
  - focuses on documenting media use and effects
- critical research
  - criticizes media institutions
  - examine how media serve dominant social groups
Content Analysis
- characterizes the content of the media
- takes systematic samples
- classifies words, images, themes
  - quantitative: counts the incidences
  - qualitative: examines the meaning
- creates detailed profiles of media content
- identifies trends over time
Experimental Research
- studies the effects of media in carefully controlled situations
- manipulates media content and exposure
- subjects are randomly divided, seeking…
  - generalizability: the degree to which research procedures and samples may be generalized
  - validity: the degree to which we are actually measuring what we intend to measure
  - reliability: the extent to which a result is stable and consistent
- e.g., Bandura’s Bobo Doll (1965)
Survey Research
- polling to determine correlation
  - statistical measure of an association between two variables
- more generalizable than experimental studies
  - represents larger populations
  - accounts for wider range of factors
- longitudinal studies are repeated over time
Ethnographic Research
- naturalistic research method in which the observer obtains detailed information from personal observation or interviews over extended periods of time
- used by anthropologists to look at cultures in holistic ways
- focus groups capture people in “in their own worlds” through guided group interaction
- can yield in-depth information about a particular place and time
- does not permit much generalization
- Big Data: predictive analysis on recorded behavior
Uses and Gratifications
- theory that media are actively selected to satisfy our needs
  - knowledge
  - social interaction
  - diversion
- dominates thinking about media consumption
- needs change over time
Social Learning Theory
- explains media consumption in terms of its expected outcomes
- explains particular avoidance of media
- self-efficacy: the perception of our own competence to consume the media
Media Addiction
- interactive media respond to our every move
- ecstatic state of flow where time seems to disappear
- effects
  - health problems
  - highs and lows
  - interfering with work and school
Computer Mediated Communication
- interpersonal, organizational communication research originated on computer networks
  - videoconferencing
  - electronic mail
- describe presence
  - psychological state in which virtual objects are experienced as real objects
- low presence
  - email consisting of only printed words
- high presence
  - two-way videoconferences with live interactions
Hypodermic Needle
- posits powerful, direct effects of the mass media
- like the impact of a speeding bullet on everyone
- studies persuasion
  - one-sided vs. two-sided arguments
  - fear-based vs. rational arguments
- example
  - “War”
  - audience does exactly what media say
  - “We want war”
Multistep Flow
- assumes media effects are indirect and mediated by opinion leaders
- most people receive much of their information and are influenced by the media secondhand
- example
  - “This means war”
  - audience follows opinion leaders who interpret media
  - “People are saying this means war”
Selective Process
- selective exposure: audiences avoid messages that are at odds with their existing beliefs
- selective perception: audiences distort discordant content
- selective retention: audiences misremember discordant content
- demonstrates the theory of limited effects
  - effects of mass media on individuals are slight
- example
  - “it’s the moral equivalent of war"
  - audience interprets in their own way
  - “War? What war?”
Social Learning
- cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction
- television and observational learning
  - rewards depicted encourage imitative behavior
  - punishments depicted discourage imitative behavior
- the more we identify with a character, the more we are likely to imitate his/her behavior
- example
  - “Let’s go get ’em"
  - audience imitate behavior shown in media
  - “Let’s play war”
Cultivation
- mass media exposure cultivates a view of the world that is consistent with mediated “reality”
- mainstreaming: real-world experiences combine with mediated worldview
- resonance: real-world experience confirms mediated view
- example
  - “It’s war on the streets"
  - audience thinks real worlds works like TV world
  - “it’s a scary world out there”
Priming
- media images stimulate related thoughts in the minds of audience members
- activation of one thought triggers related thoughts
- example
  - “Blam!”
  - media triggers related thoughts in audience
  - “Happiness is a warm gun”
Agenda Setting
- process through which public figures and important events shape the content of the media
- does not tells what to think, but…
- tells us what to think about
Catharsis
- media sex and violence allow people to live out antisocial desires in a mediated fantasy world
- effects of violence video games
- long-period players exhibited less aggression
Critical Theories
- focus less on behavior effects of individuals
- address how communities and individuals interpret media and large-scale cultural impacts
  - political economy and ideology: powerful media owners assert ideological interests
  - cultural studies: audiences are readers of media texts
Antisocial Behavior
- contrary to prevailing norms for social conduct
  - murder
  - hate crimes
  - rape
  - drug abuse
  - drunkenness
  - aggression
  - sexual promiscuity
Violence
- children cannot easily distinguish between the real world and the mediated world
- effect of television violence on children
  - carry out parallel aggressions
  - perform new, novel forms of violent behavior
- more important social factors, not related to media
  - family and peer influences
  - socioeconomic status
  - history of substance abuse
- concerned parents should anticipate violent content with content “warning labels”
Prejudice
- stereotyping
  - formation of generalizations about a group of people based on limited information
  - harmful when they become rationalizations for treating others unfairly
- examples
  - gender
  - ethnic minorities
- media are effective in creating stereotypes
- concern over negative stereotypes spilling over into daily lives
Sexual Behavior
- first triggered with Hollywood star scandals of the 1920s
- recent increases in highly explicit pornographic material
  - videos
  - Internet
- is there a relationship between pornography and sex crimes in the real world?
Drug Abuse
- illegal drugs not commonly depicted on media
- legal drug advertising
  - cigarette companies
  - hard-liquor distilleries
  - beer and wine
  - over-the-counter drugs
  - prescription drugs
Prosocial Behavior
- behaviors that a society values or encourages
  - cooperation
  - altruism
  - sharing
  - love
  - tolerance
  - respect
  - balanced nutrition
  - contraceptive use
  - personal hygiene
  - safe driving
  - improved readings skills
- discontinuing antisocial behaviors
  - smoking
  - drinking
  - reckless driving
  - unsafe sex
Information Campaigns
- uses techniques of public relations and advertising in an attempt to convince people to adopt prosocial behaviors
- information campaigns have a spotty record of success
- social marketing techniques
  - integrated marketing communication approach
  - media campaigns
  - interpersonal influence
  - introduce recommended products into the lives of the target audience
Informal Education
- impact without a captive audience of classroom students
- combine education and entertainment
- unintended effects
  - e.g., Sesame Street couldn’t close the “knowledge gap”
- incidental learning
  - learning that comes as a side effect of exposure to entertainment
  - “entertainment-education”
Formal Education
- distance education
  - delivery of courses through media
- World Wide Web
  - virtual university
- effectiveness of online courses
  - asynchronous
  - synchronous
- Massive Open Online Courses
Impacts of Advertising
- advertisers are happy to achieve a limited impact
  - strengthen brand awareness
  - maintain brand loyalty
- hierarchy of effect
  - purchase decisions follow a series of steps
  - awareness
  - interest
  - decision
  - buying action
Children and Advertising
- young children have a difficult time understanding commercials
  - confuse commercials with the programs
  - react uncritically to advertising messages
- some television shows are program-length advertisements
- e.g., characters of a children’s program are toys for sale
Political Communication
- unclear how to sway massive bloc of votes through persuasive argumentation
- researchers study complex interactions between voters, media, and political systems
- issues have turned into TV “sound bites”
- public opinion: commonly held beliefs, attitudes, and misconceptions about the issues of the day
- spiral of silence: aids the dominant public opinion despite disagreements
- social media can play an important role in sparking social movements outside the purview of the political establishment and mainstream media
Social Inequality
- wealth
- race
- gender
- digital divide
- haves
  - information rich
  - superior levels of education
  - access to libraries and personal computers
- have-nots
  - information poor
  - inferior levels of education
  - poor access to information resources
- knowledge gap hypothesis
  - haves will never catch up to the have-nots
Health and Environment
- concerns of excessive media use…
- physical inactivity may lead to obesity
- may cause attention disorders
- exposure to very-low frequency radiation
- cell phones implicated in brain cancer
- repetitive stress injuries
Media and Economy
- information technology improves efficiency by eliminating employees
- fewer employees leading to job displacement
- global telecommunications networks enables offshoring
- insourcing designers, requiring fewer workers
- information technologies could lead to deskilling
- new information technologies could force upskilling that existing workers might not have
- telecommuting could decentralize the workforce
Fordism and Post-Fordism
- Fordism
  - each employee performs a single task over and over again
  - workers don’t know how to make anything
  - only the managers know how to organize those tasks
  - workers paid enough to purchase the products they assembled
- Post-Fordism
  - deskilled workers
  - workers paid less and replaced at-will
  - cuts pay to where workers cannot participate in the consumer economy